140 FIG. 20 (left): Toggle, tiki ivi po’o. Marquesas Islands. 19th century or earlier. Ex J. J. Klejman, New York. Human bone. H: 3.8 cm. Private collection. FIG. 21 (below): Necklace with human teeth. Solomon or Admiralty islands. Human teeth, shell, fi ber. D: c. 14 cm. Private collection, Belgium. FIG. 22 (right): “Dagger” (shark-tooth point absent) possibly also used as a lomilomi implement or a kahili. Hawaii. 19th century or earlier. Ex Blackmore Museum, Salisbury; Harry Geoffrey Beasley (acquired from the previous in 1931); K. John Hewett. Inscribed: “Sandwich Islands.” Human arm bone, turtle shell, sperm whale tooth, goat horn (?). H: 36.7 cm. Private collection. hoto: B. Carlson. ica, although other palms in southern Africa (Hyphaene ventricosa) and Micronesia (Metroxylon amicarum) produce a similar nut. The tagua nut is usually about 4 cm in diameter, although it can grow to the size of an apple and has an extremely hard cellulose kernel that is very white in appearance and can be carved like ivory. The outer husk of the nut is dark brown and is frequently incorporated into the nut’s carving. Their small size makes them unsuitable for large carvings. The most common use of ivory nuts is for new netsuke and buttons, but they are rarely used for traditional tribal artworks. A cross section of vegetable ivory reveals regularly spaced circular lines similar to those seen in hippopotamus incisors. The center cavity of the nut can be distinguished from the pulp cavity of a tooth or tusk by the projections that radiate outward from the center (fi g. 4l). CONCLUSION Sustained biological inquiry into the animal kingdom continues to unlock new mechanisms and tools for analyzing and assessing many of the foundational elements that differentiate species. These tools can aid efforts to ensure that the world’s endangered species remain protected. They also enhance our ability to more readily detect the source of animal materials and, thereby, can more effi ciently work to preserve habitats while also ensuring that indigenous cultural artifacts remain available to those seeking their preservation.35 While the sections discussed above represent the major categories, any form of tooth, including human (fi g. 21), can be considered ivory and may be subject to specifi c restrictions. In addition to the visual methods discussed above, the current state of scientifi c analysis provides methods that allow investigators to locate the source of the origin of ivory through DNA analysis or through analysis of the ivory’s mineral content, which can often pinpoint the animal’s specifi c origin through the deduction of erosion, the effects of environmental factors, and species diet.36 The morphology revealed in the microscopic physical characteristics of ivory, bone, nuts, and manufactured imitations using dental diagnostic methods—usually a less costly and intrusive process—can also contribute to the authentication of tribal art objects. All of these methods support evaluation by a trained expert for the deter-
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